HERT 414 Cultural Mapping 2023
Material and technique
材料和建造技術
Chinese Architectures 中式建築
Materials 材料
Materials of walls and foundation: The predominant style of traditional Chinese architecture in Macao is the Lingnan style, which is mainly built with materials such as brick, stone, and wood. One of the key advantages of these materials is their high thermal mass, which enables them to absorb and release heat slowly. This is especially useful in controlling indoor temperatures during hot weather, a crucial consideration in the face of rising temperatures due to global warming. By utilizing materials with high thermal mass, Lingnan architecture is able to maintain comfortable indoor temperatures and provide a sustainable living environment for residents, even in the face of climate change.
牆體和地基材料：澳門中國傳統建築的主要風格是嶺南風格，主要採用磚、石、木等材料建造。 這些材料的主要優點之一是它們的高熱質量，這使它們能够緩慢地吸收和釋放熱量。 這在炎熱天氣控制室內溫度方面尤其有用，這是面對全球變暖導致的氣溫上升時的一個重要緩解因素。 嶺南建築利用這種高熱質材料，即使在氣候變化氣溫變暖的情况下，也能保持舒適的室內溫度，為居民提供可持續的生活環境。
The majority of traditional Chinese buildings in Macao are constructed using Chinese gray bricks and lime mortar, with a stone foundation. The abundant groundwater and high atmospheric humidity associated with climate change have made these buildings more vulnerable to rising damp and salt attack. As a result, the use of these materials is essential in preventing the collapse of walls caused by water seepage during extreme weather conditions. For instance, Hong Chan Kuan Temple (Bazaar Temple) uses the stone foundation to protect the grey bricks and wooden struction from moisture and heavy rain.
澳門的大多數中國傳統建築都是用中國青磚和石灰砂漿建造的，地基是石頭。 與氣候變化相關的豐富地下水和高濕度使這些建築更容易受到日益嚴重的潮濕和鹽分侵蝕。 因此，這些材料的使用對於防止極端天氣條件下滲水導致的牆體倒塌至關重要。 例如，康真君廟（康公廟）使用石頭地基來保護青磚和木制結構免受潮濕和大雨的影響。
Stone foundation in Hong Chan Kuan Temple 康真君廟（康公廟）的石頭地基
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Materials of roof: Most traditional Chinese architecture features glazed tile roofs, but this kind of roof is not suitable for Macao. Glazed tile roofs require a high firing temperature, resulting in a higher density than terracotta tiles. Terracotta tile has slower heat transfer, making it an ideal material for keeping the interior cool in hot weather. Therefore, the majority of temples in Macao use terracotta tiles, and some even use double-layered ones.
屋頂材料：中國傳統建築大多採用琉璃瓦屋頂，但這種屋頂材料並不適合澳門。 琉璃瓦需要很高的燒制溫度，因此密度比陶土瓦高。 陶土瓦的傳熱速度較慢，是在炎熱天氣下保持室內凉爽的理想資料。 因此，澳門的大多數寺廟都使用陶土瓦，有些甚至使用雙層磚。
Materials of window: Traditional wood windows in Chinese architecture in Macao usually use Mother-of-pearl Windows, also known as shell windows. For example, Mandarin’s House, Former Chong Sai Pharmac and Lou Kau Mansion. Shell is a material that helps to shield against wind, reduce the heat, but also is highly translucent. In the past, this kind of material was widely used in Macao. However, the widespread use of glass in the 19th century dealt a fatal blow to the Mother-of-pearl Windows, and since then, most Windows in Macao buildings have been made of glass.
窗戶材料：澳門傳統建築中的傳統木窗通常使用蠔殼窗，也稱為貝殼窗。 例如，鄭家大屋、中西藥侷舊址和盧家大屋。 蠔殼是一種有助於擋風、降低室內溫度的材料，但它也是高度透光的。 在過去，這種材料在澳門被廣泛使用。 然而，19世紀玻璃的廣泛使用對蠔殼窗造成了致命打擊，從那時起，澳門建築的大多數窗戶都是由玻璃製成的。
Mother-of pearl 蠔殼
Mother-of-pearl Window (component) 蠔殼窗
Mother-of-pearl Window in Mandarin’s House 鄭家大屋的蠔殼窗
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Wall plastering construction technique 牆面抹灰施工技術
Traditional Chinese architecture mainly uses lime slaking for wall plastering. The figure mainly demonstrates the making process of Lime Slaking. Lime slaking contains substantial amounts of rice straws added by builders and craftsmen during the initial stage of slaking. During the slaking process, the fibers and plant sap from the straws are released and contribute to enhance strength and elasticity to the final lime plaster. To further improve the plaster’s performance, lime washes made by adding mineral pigments to slaked white lime are often used to coat the lime plaster for added permeability and compatibility. This technique can enhance the natural air permeability of the wall, which is beneficial in coping with the challenges of climate change, such as hot weather and increased rainfall. The strong air permeability of the walls facilitates the volatilization of moisture, making them more resistant to the effects of wet weather.
中國傳統建築主要使用漚製石灰進行牆面抹灰。 該圖主要展示了漚製石灰的製作過程。 漚製石灰含有大量的稻草，這些稻草是建築工人和工匠在工序初期添加的。 在熟化過程中，秸稈中的纖維和植物汁液被釋放出來，有助於增强最終製得的灰的韌度和彈性。 為了進一步提高漚製石灰的效能，通常使用在熟石灰中添加礦物顏料製成的灰水塗料來塗覆石灰石膏，以新增滲透性和相容性。 這項技術可以提高牆體的自然透氣性，有利於應對氣候變化的挑戰，如炎熱的天氣和新增的降雨量。 牆壁的强透氣性有助於水分的揮發，使其更能抵抗潮濕天氣的負面影響。
Making process of Lime Slaking 漚製石灰的製作過程
Source: exhibition held by IC
來源: 澳門文化局舉辦的展覽
Masonry construction technique 砌築技術
The Masonry technique of Lingnan architecture in Macao also contributes to coping with climate change. Brickwork has played an important role in Lingnan architecture since the Ming Dynasty. One of the distinctive features of the Masonry construction technique of gray brick walls is the use of unplastered brick walls, which reveal the original brick joints (砖缝). Grey brick walls usually constructed in a single layer are called “solid walls (实体墙)” or “solid masonry (实心墙)”, which were common in the early days. As time progressed, Chinese residences in the Ming and Qing dynasties adopted hollow brick walls (cavity walls) or double-layered brick walls (双隅砖墙) to address issues of heat and humidity. Cavity walls can be found at the Pátio da Eterna Felicidade (永福围), Former Chong Sai Pharmac, Lou Kau Mansion and other buildings in Macao.
澳門嶺南建築的磚石砌築技術也有助於應對氣候變化。 明代以來，磚石砌築在嶺南建築中發揮了重要作用。 青磚牆砌築施工技術的一個顯著特點是使用了未上漆的磚牆，露出了原始的磚縫. 通常單層建造的青磚牆被稱為“實體牆” 或“實心墻”, 這在早期很常見。 隨著時間的推移，明清時期的中式住宅採用了空心牆或雙隅磚牆以解决熱和濕度問題。 空心牆可以在澳門的永福圍、中西藥侷舊址、盧家大屋和其他建築中找到。
Grey brick walls at the Pátio da Eterna Felicidade
永福圍的青磚墻
Grey brick walls at Former Chong Sai Pharmacy
中西藥侷舊址的青磚墻
Grey brick walls at Lou Kau Mansion 盧家大屋的青磚墻
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Cavity walls are constructed by laying bricks horizontally across the wall, with each row of bricks known as a “stretcher (顺砖)” and two or three rows referred to as a “course of stretchers (顺排)”. After a few layers of courses of stretchers have been piled, bricks are laid vertically to connect the stretcher rows and reinforce the alignment. This is called a “beader (丁砖)”, and the rows are known as a “course of beaders (丁排)”. One layer of course of beaders is laid after a few layers of courses of stretchers have been heaped, and this pattern is repeated. This kind of construction technique of cavity walls remains a certain space between the bricks, which allows water to penetrate the outer layer while keeping the inner layer dry during rainy days. During a sunny climate, the exterior layer is heated by the sun while the inner layer remains cool. The mortar used to construct the walls and connect the bricks is made by pounding and combining oyster shell ash with lime, sticky rice pulp, Tung oil (wood oil), and other ingredients such as brown sugar and egg white. After curing, this kind of mortar becomes very firm and strong, with excellent waterproofing and air-permeability attributes.
空心牆是通過在牆上水平或垂直鋪設磚塊來建造的。順疊的磚塊被稱為“順轉” ， 兩排或三排順轉被稱為“順排”。 堆放幾層後，垂直鋪設磚塊，以拉緊順排。 豎排的磚塊被稱為“丁磚”, 兩排以上的丁磚被稱為“丁排”。 在堆了幾層順排之後，再鋪上一層丁排，重複這種模式。 這種空心牆的施工技術在磚與磚之間保持一定的空間，在雨天，水滲透到外層，卻能保持內層乾燥。 在晴天，外層被太陽加熱，而內層保持凉爽。 用於建造牆壁和連接磚塊的砂漿是通過將牡蠣殼灰與石灰、糯米漿、桐油（木油）以及紅糖和蛋清等其他成分搗碎並混合而成的。 這種砂漿經過養護後，變得非常堅固，具有優异的防水和透氣效能。
Stretchers and beaders 順磚和丁磚
Cavity wall 空心墻
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Traditional grey bricks offer excellent resistance against wind and rain as well as withstand the expansion and contraction caused by changes in temperature and moisture. As for thermal properties (热工性能), grey bricks are permeable to water vapor but do not allow complete water penetration under normal pressure. When moisture in the air condenses on the surface of the bricks, they can absorb a small amount of water. This water can then be evaporated as water vapor through natural ventilation and heat when drier air is present. This “respiration (呼吸作用)” process helps to keep the interior of the bricks dry, making them highly resistant to water and moisture. As a result, traditional grey bricks are an excellent material for exterior walls in Chinese architecture in Macao. Therefore, the Masonry technique of Lingnan architecture in Macao shields the heat and maintains the comfortable temperature inside the building, conducts moisture proof by keeping the inner brick wall dry, and copes with the heavy wind brought by climate change.
傳統的青磚具有良好的防風防雨效能，並能承受溫度和濕度變化引起的膨脹和收縮。 關於熱工性能, 青磚能滲透水蒸氣，但在正常壓力下不允許水分完全滲透。 當空氣中的水分凝結在磚塊表面時，它們可以吸收少量的水分。 當空氣乾燥時，這些水分可以通過自然通風和加熱以水蒸氣的形式蒸發。 這種“呼吸作用”過程有助於保持磚的內部乾燥，使其具有高度的耐水性和防潮性。 因此，傳統的青磚是澳門中國建築外牆的優秀材料。 所以，澳門嶺南建築的砌築技術可以隔熱並保持建築內部舒適的溫度，通過保持內部磚牆乾燥來防潮，並應對氣候變化帶來的強風。
Tiles construction technique 瓦片施工技術
Curved tiles (曲板瓦) and half-round ridge tiles (碌筒瓦) are the commonly used traditional building tiles in traditional Chinese architecture in Macao. The construction technique of tiles in traditional Chinese architecture involves overlapping the concave surface (凹面) of the tile from bottom to top. Generally, the top tiles cover 70% of the bottom tiles and disclose 30% of the bottom tiles. This is known as “covering seven and exposing three (搭七露三)”, which is actually a three-layer stacked tile, also called a “triple tile (三重瓦)”. There are also other ways to construct the tiles. “Covering five and exposing five (搭五露五)” is commonly used in simple buildings or in order to save materia, which is a double-tile roof. For buildings with higher level and class, the first layers use the technique of “covering five and exposing five”，the top layer is laid with “covering seven and exposing three”. A seven-layered and tiled roof called “one to seven (一掂七)” is used in a larger space between each layer, in which the layout technique provides interlayer space for horizontal micro airflow. This is also conducive to heat insulation and dissipation, and sound blocking from rain.
曲板瓦和碌筒瓦是澳門傳統建築中常用的瓦件。 瓦件的搭接方式是：板瓦凹面向上，從下往上搭接。 通常，頂部瓦片覆蓋了底部瓦片的70%，並且露出了底部瓦片30%。 這就是所謂的“搭七露三”, 它實際上是一個三層堆疊的瓷磚，也被稱為“三重瓦”. 還有其他方法可以構建瓷磚。 “搭五露五” 通常用於簡單的建築或為了節省資料，即雙層瓦屋頂。 對於級別和等級較高的建築，第一層採用“搭五露五”的科技，頂層採用“搭七露三”。 被稱為“一掂七”的七層疊瓦屋頂在每層之間的空間較多，可以形成橫向微氣流。 這也有利於隔熱和散熱，以及阻隔雨水的聲音。
Tiles construction types 瓦片搭建類型
Source: Exhibition held by IC
來源: 澳門文化局舉辦的展覽
The half-round ridge tiles are stacked between two rows of curved tiles on the left and right, with the concave side facing downward. A half-round tile’s tapering end allows for the snapping and joining of a quarter of a previous tile. Straw fiber in earth plaster formed by grass roots is used to bond the tiles. In order to create a sequence of tile rows from top to bottom that would allow the roof to drain properly and in an organized manner, the spaces between them are also filled with straw plaster. A half-round ridge tile’s internal surface temperature rises little in the morning, resulting in less real long-wave thermal radiation in the interior. Hence, it is a good material for heat insulation during the day. The curved tiles, on the other hand, have a lower thermal resistance as well as a lower thermal stability. However, they are ideal material for rapidly dissipating heat at night. Therefore, the stacking technique of traditional tiled sloping roofs can provide heat and rain protection of the building, which can resist the extreme weather like heavy rain and hot climate brought by climate change.
碌筒瓦堆疊在左右兩排曲板瓦之間，凹面朝下。筒瓦尾部收小，讓上一塊瓦頭部套上，通常套接四分之一。 由草根形成的灰泥中的稻草纖維被用來粘合瓷磚。。 為了從上到下搭建一系列瓦壠，使屋頂能够排水分散有序。它們之間的空間也用稻草灰泥填充。 半圓脊磚的內表面溫度在早上幾乎沒有上升，導致內部真實的長波熱輻射减少。 因此，它在白天是一種很好的隔熱材料。 另一方面，曲板瓦具有較低的熱阻以及較低的熱穩定性。 然而，它們是在夜間快速散熱的理想資料。 因此，傳統瓷磚斜屋頂的堆疊科技可以為建築提供隔熱和防雨保護，可以抵禦氣候變化帶來的大雨和炎熱氣候等極端天氣。
Curved tiles and half-round ridge tiles of Pátio da Eterna Felicidade 永福圍的曲板瓦和碌筒瓦
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Western Architectures 西式建築
Materials 材料
Materials of walls and foundation: Chunambo, one of the earliest building materials, is known as "rammed earth" in many regions. It is made of local materials, with varying components depending on the area. In Macao, for example, oyster shells are used instead of rocks. Portuguese settlers brought this material to build defense systems and buildings like Ruin’s of St. Paul. Chunambo in Macao is composed of oyster shells, straw, rice, local soils and sand, chemically bonded together by slaked lime.
牆體和地基材料：Chunanbo是最早的建築材料之一，在許多地區被稱為“夯土”。 它是由當地材料製成的，根據地區的不同，有不同的組成部分。 例如，在澳門，人們用牡蠣殼代替石頭。葡萄牙定居者帶來了這種材料來建造防禦系統和建築物，比如大三巴牌坊。 澳門的Chunanbo由牡蠣殼、稻草、大米、當地土壤和沙子組成，通過生石灰結合在一起。
Chunambo has excellent compressive strength and breathability, making it ideal for Macao's humid climate. It has the ability to absorb humidity during rainy weather and release it when the environment becomes dry. However, this kind of material suffers from the flooding brought by climate change, because it can absorb water and it doesn’t dissipate quickly, then it will disintegrate and then they will collapse. To address this, Western buildings also integrate with traditional Chinese architecture materials like Shanghai plaster and grey bricks. The Cathedral is a prime example of this. The texture of Shanghai plaster is extremely durable, making it highly resistant to rain, wind, and moisture corrosion.
Chunanbo具有出色的抗壓強度和透氣性，非常適合澳門潮濕的氣候。 它能够在雨天吸收濕氣，並在環境乾燥時釋放濕氣。 然而，這種資料會受到氣候變化帶來的洪水的影響，因為它可以吸收水分，但不會很快消散，墻體會分解，然後坍塌。 為了解决這一問題，西方建築也與中國傳統建築材料相結合，如使用水刷石和青磚。 大教堂就是一個很好的例子。 水刷石的質地非常耐用，具有很强的防雨、防風和防潮腐蝕能力。
Chunambo used in Ruin’s of St. Paul 大三巴牌坊的Chunambo材料
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Materials of roofs: A large number of Western-style buildings that still exist in Macao feature timber-framed roofs, which mainly adopt two types of roof structures from the Tudor and James I periods in England: the trussed-rafter roof and the hammer-beam roof. Wood is a natural insulator, which can help to control indoor temperatures. This attribute is beneficial to cope with the hot climate brought by climate change. Moreover, the structural stability of the trussed-rafter roof is very good, which is an ideal prevention of extreme weather such as Typhoons.
屋頂材料：澳門現存的大量西式建築採用木框架屋頂，主要採用英國都鐸詹姆斯一世時期的兩種屋頂結構：人字形桁架屋頂和槌式屋頂。 木材是一種天然的絕緣體，有助於控制室內溫度。 這一材料有利於應對氣候變化帶來的炎熱氣候。 此外，人字形桁架屋頂的結構穩定性非常好，是抵禦颱風等極端天氣的理想選擇。
Materials of windows: Wooden shutter windows used in Western architecture in Macao do not absorb much solar radiation and do not gain too much heat, therefore, there is little increase in indoor buildings, it effectively and flexibly controls the interior temperature, which is very beneficial to cope with the hot days brought by climate change. For example, the shutter windows in St. Dominic’s Church.
窗戶材料：澳門西方建築中使用的木百葉窗不會吸收太多的太陽輻射，也不會獲得太多的熱量，因此室內建築温度的增高很少，它可以有效靈活地控制室內溫度，這對應對氣候變化帶來的炎熱天氣非常有益。 例如，玫瑰聖母堂的百葉窗。窗戶材料：澳門西方建築中使用的木百葉窗不會吸收太多的太陽輻射，也不會獲得太多的熱量，因此室內建築温度的增高很少，它可以有效靈活地控制室內溫度，這對應對氣候變化帶來的炎熱天氣非常有益。 例如，玫瑰聖母堂的百葉窗。
Shutter windows in St. Dominic’s Church 玫瑰聖母堂的百葉窗
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Roof construction technique 屋頂建造技術
Some churches in Macao, such as the Church of Our Lady Of the Snows, have a unique construction material of a double-layered roof, which consists of a stone semi-circular arch roof covered with a wooden pitched roof. This construction technique of roof is designed to protect the church from lightning strikes and fires, as the stone arch roof can provide a layer of protection in case the wooden roof catches fire. In addition, the wooden roof also serves as a shield against rainwater, protecting the stone arch roof from erosion. Therefore, it can help the building to cope with the extreme weather like heavy rain brought by climate change.
澳門的一些教堂，如聖母雪地殿教堂，有一種獨特的雙層屋頂建築材料，由石頭半圓形拱形屋頂和木制坡屋頂組成。 這種屋頂施工技術旨在保護教堂免受雷擊和火灾的影響，因為石拱屋頂可以在木屋頂著火的情况下提供一層保護。 此外，木質屋頂還起到了擋雨的作用，保護石拱屋頂免受侵蝕。 因此，它可以幫助建築應對氣候變化帶來的大雨等極端天氣。
Double-layered roof in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snows 聖母雪地殿教堂的雙層屋頂
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
Conservation technique 保育技術
In order to cope with extreme weather and conserve the heritage better, many conservation work for the heritage sites change the material of the buildings. For instance, in order to better conserve St. Dominic’s Church under extreme weather, the original wooden roof truss (屋架) is replaced by a steel one, the exterior of which is covered with teak panels. This measure not only preserves the aesthetic appearance of the building, but also enables the building to cope with the wet weather and strong winds due to climate change. The figure below demonstrates the construction changes before and after the conservation work. Also, in the 20th century, due to typhoon damage, the “Leal Senado” Building was renovated in 1939, adopting a flat roof made of reinforced concrete, which completely eliminated the problem of typhoon damage.
為了應對極端天氣，更好地保護遺產，許多遺產地的保護工作都改變了建築的資料。 例如，為了在極端天氣下更好地保護玫瑰聖母堂，原木質屋架改成鋼制的，其外部覆蓋著柚木面板。 這一措施不僅保留了建築的美學外觀，還使建築能够應對氣候變化帶來的潮濕天氣和強風。 下圖展示了保護工作前後的建築結構變化。 此外，在20世紀，由於颱風的破壞，市政署大樓於1939年進行了翻新，採用了鋼筋混凝土平屋頂，徹底消除了颱風破壞的問題。
Wooden roof truss (left) and steel roof truss (right) of St. Dominic’s Church 木質屋架（左邊）和鋼製屋架（右邊）
Source: Xu, 2008
來源: Xu, 2008
Another conservation technique founded in Former Chong Sai Pharmacy is beneficial to deal with the salinization of construction materials of heritage sites by sea level rise. In Former Chong Sai Pharmacy, a liquid damp proof course is injected into the foundation of walls by a gravity-drip injection system, in order to protect the structures and prevent future damages from rising damp and salt efflorescence. By forming an impermeable barrier, the increasing damp and the resultant damage to the buildings are stopped. As a consequence, after using a salt removal paste, the crystallized salts may be vacuumed or dusted. To guarantee that free “breathing” is activated through all walls, salt-scavenging plasters and vapor-permeable paint are used. Therefore, this method can prevent rising damp and salt efflorescence from damaging the high density grey bricks used in Macao’s historic structures.
中西藥局舊址的另一項保護技術有助於解决海平面上升導致的遺產建築材料鹽鹼化問題。 在中西藥局舊址，通過重力滴注系統將液體防潮層注入牆壁的基礎中，以保護結構，防止未來因潮濕和鹽堿化而造成的損壞。 通過形成一個不可滲透的屏障，可以封锁日益新增的濕氣和由此對建築物造成的破壞。 因此，在使用除鹽設備之後，結晶的鹽可以被抽真空或除塵。 為了確保所有牆壁都能啟動自由“呼吸”，使用了除鹽紙漿和透氣塗層。 因此，這種方法可以防止上升的潮濕和鹽風化破壞澳門歷史建築中使用的高密度青磚。
Damp proof course and salt control technique in Former Chong Sai Pharmacy 中西藥局舊址的截水除鹽工程
Source: Wang Keyue 來源: 王可悅
References:
Liu, X. J., Chen, Z. C. (2005). Macao cultural heritage sites. Southeast University Press. (in Chinese)
Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau. (2022). 30-year Statistics of some meteorological elements from 1991 to 2020. https://www.smg.gov.mo/en/subpage/348/page/252
Xing, R. F. (2021). Macau · Horta de Mitra · A temple of Tou-Dei. China Arts and Literature Press. (in Chinese)
Xu, Z. (2008). Religious Architecture in Macao. China Electric Power Press. (in Chinese)
By WANG KEYUE, FIONA